The Cuban Revolution: An Autopsy of Upheaval - History Tools (2024)

"I believe that there is no country in the world where economic colonization, exploitation, and humiliation were worse than in Cuba, in part owing to my country‘s policies." – President John F. Kennedy, 1963

The Cuban Revolution was one of the most momentous events of the 20th century, a dramatic upheaval that reshaped not only the island nation but the entire global political landscape. In a few short years, a band of guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara toppled a U.S.-backed dictatorship and established the first communist state in the Western Hemisphere.

But the revolution did not emerge from a vacuum. Its roots stretched deep into Cuba‘s history, intertwined with long-simmering resentments against foreign domination, economic exploitation, and homegrown tyranny. To understand how and why the Cuban people embraced radical change, we must examine the complex web of factors that set the stage for Castro‘s rise to power.

The Weight of History

Cuba‘s struggle for self-determination began long before the 1950s. For centuries, the island was a prized possession of the Spanish Empire, its economy based on slave-powered sugar plantations. The U.S., which had long coveted Cuba for its strategic location and economic potential, intervened in the Cuban War of Independence against Spain in 1898.

The resulting Spanish-American War ended with Cuba nominally independent but under U.S. military occupation. Washington‘s true intentions were revealed in the Teller Amendment of 1898, which disclaimed any American designs on Cuban territory, and the Platt Amendment of 1901, which gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs at will.[^1]

For the next three decades, Cuba was essentially a U.S. protectorate. American corporations came to dominate the island‘s economy, controlling everything from sugar production to public utilities. By the late 1920s, U.S. investments in Cuba totaled over $1 billion (equivalent to nearly $15 billion today), and American-owned firms controlled 75% of the arable land.^2

This economic stranglehold was reinforced by political subservience. The Cuban government was a revolving door of presidents who served at the pleasure of Washington, punctuated by frequent U.S. military interventions to suppress unrest and protect American interests. As the historian Jules Benjamin put it, "Cuba was an American colony in all but name."[^3]

The Price of Dependency

Cuba‘s lopsided relationship with the U.S. left it highly vulnerable to external shocks. This was starkly revealed when the global Great Depression hit in the early 1930s. As demand for sugar collapsed, Cuba‘s export-dependent economy imploded. Unemployment soared to 50%, wages were slashed, and hunger stalked the countryside.^4

The crisis exposed the deep fault lines in Cuban society. While a prosperous urban middle class enjoyed a standard of living comparable to the U.S., the vast majority of Cubans toiled in grinding poverty. Income inequality was among the highest in the world, with the top 8% of earners taking home 26 times more than the bottom 20%.^5 Racism also remained rampant, a legacy of centuries of slavery.

Amid the desperation and unrest of the Depression years, a coalition of students, workers, and disaffected army officers rose up to overthrow the dictator Gerardo Machado in 1933. The so-called "Sergeants‘ Revolt" briefly installed a progressive government that granted women the right to vote, legalized labor unions, and promised land reform.[^6]

However, the promise of the 1933 revolution was short-lived. One of its leaders, an army sergeant named Fulgencio Batista, soon maneuvered to seize power for himself. While Batista‘s first stint as president from 1940-1944 saw the adoption of a moderately reformist constitution, its provisions were largely ignored once he left office.[^7]

The Failure of Democracy

The 1940 Constitution, though far from perfect, raised hopes for a more inclusive and equitable Cuba. It guaranteed universal suffrage, the right to organize unions, a minimum wage, and public education. However, the document proved to be little more than a dead letter as successive governments, beholden to U.S. interests and the Cuban elite, blocked its implementation.^8

By the late 1940s, many Cubans had lost faith in the ability of traditional parties to bring about meaningful change. The ruling Auténtico Party, despite its nationalist and reformist rhetoric, had become mired in corruption and patronage. In the 1948 "pistolerismo" election, political violence claimed an estimated 1,000 lives.^9

It was in this atmosphere of disillusionment that a young lawyer named Fidel Castro first emerged as a national figure. Born into a relatively prosperous landholding family in 1926, Castro was exposed to leftist ideas as a student at the University of Havana. He became active in the violence-prone world of Cuban student politics in the 1940s, running for congress on the Orthodox Party ticket in 1952.[^10]

However, Castro‘s electoral ambitions were cut short when Batista, now a general, seized power in a military coup just months before the scheduled election. Batista‘s power grab, endorsed by the U.S., was a turning point for Castro and many of his generation. As Castro later put it, "It was then that we became convinced of the necessity of armed struggle and that we could not achieve our political objectives by peaceful means."^11

The Decadence of Dictatorship

Batista with U.S. Army Chief of Staff Malin Craig, 1938 [^12]

Batista‘s second stint in power, from 1952 to 1958, was marked by an astonishing degree of corruption and repression. The dictator and his cronies plundered the treasury and public works projects, amassing enormous personal fortunes. American mafia bosses like Meyer Lansky were given free rein to operate casinos and hotels in Havana, turning the city into a playground for gamblers and prostitutes.[^13]

The extent of U.S. economic domination also reached new heights during the Batista years. By 1958, American firms owned 90% of Cuba‘s mines, 80% of its utilities, and 40% of its sugar industry.[^14] The U.S. government, in turn, propped up Batista with military aid and diplomatic support, viewing him as a bulwark against communism.

However, Batista‘s iron fist only served to radicalize the opposition. Castro, who had been released from prison in 1955 after being jailed for his role in a failed attack on a military barracks, regrouped with his followers in Mexico. There they began plotting an armed insurgency to topple the dictatorship.

The Spark of Revolution

Fidel Castro and Che Guevara in the Sierra Maestra, 1957 [^15]

The military phase of the Cuban Revolution began in earnest on December 2, 1956, when Castro and 81 other rebels landed in southeastern Cuba aboard the yacht Granma. The landing was a disaster, with most of the insurgents killed or captured by Batista‘s forces. But Castro and a handful of survivors, including his brother Raúl and an Argentine doctor named Ernesto "Che" Guevara, managed to escape into the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains.[^16]

Over the next two years, the ragtag band of guerrillas waged a surprisingly effective campaign against the far larger and better-equipped Cuban army. Castro proved to be a master of propaganda, issuing manifestos and granting interviews to sympathetic foreign journalists like Herbert Matthews of the New York Times. The rebels‘ exploits, amplified by their clandestine radio station Radio Rebelde, captured the imagination of Cubans and solidified Castro‘s image as a romantic revolutionary hero.[^17]

Meanwhile, Batista‘s regime was crumbling from within. The dictator‘s mishandling of the Moncada barracks attack in 1953, in which he had ordered the execution of many surrendered rebels, cost him public support. His suspension of constitutional guarantees and reliance on censorship and torture further alienated the middle class.^18

A turning point came in March 1958, when the U.S. government, sensing Batista‘s weakness, announced an arms embargo on Cuba. The move demoralized Batista‘s army and gave a major boost to the rebels, who stepped up their attacks. In August, Castro‘s forces won a decisive victory against the government garrison at El Uvero, establishing their control over a large swath of eastern Cuba.[^19]

As 1958 drew to a close, the end was in sight for Batista. The U.S. ambassador, Earl E.T. Smith, later admitted that by December, "The game was completely in Castro‘s hands. … Batista was finished."[^20] On New Year‘s Eve, the dictator fled the country with his top aides, reportedly taking $300 million in loot with him. A week later, on January 8, 1959, Castro and his triumphant rebels entered Havana to the cheers of huge crowds.

The Revolution Consolidated

Fidel Castro addresses the UN General Assembly, 1960 [^21]

The victory of the Cuban Revolution sent shockwaves around the world. In the U.S., the initial reaction was cautious optimism, with officials expressing hope that Castro would be a moderate reformer. However, it soon became clear that the new government had far more radical ambitions.

Over the next few years, Castro moved swiftly to consolidate his power and transform Cuban society. American-owned businesses were nationalized, land was redistributed to peasants, and ties with the Soviet Union were expanded. By the time Castro publicly declared himself a Marxist-Leninist in December 1961, Cuba had become a one-party communist state aligned with Moscow in the Cold War.[^22]

For many Cubans, the revolution represented a historic triumph over decades of oppression and foreign domination. Castro‘s government made impressive strides in education, healthcare, and racial equality, becoming a model for leftist movements across Latin America. However, critics point to the revolution‘s dark side, including political repression, economic stagnation, and the exile of thousands of Cubans who fled the island.[^23]

An Ambiguous Legacy

More than six decades after its triumph, the Cuban Revolution‘s legacy remains contested. Castro‘s death in 2016 and the ascension of his brother Raúl to the presidency marked the end of an era, but the island‘s future remains uncertain. Despite economic reforms and a thaw in relations with the U.S. under President Barack Obama, Cuba continues to face daunting challenges, from the effects of the long-running U.S. trade embargo to an aging population and crumbling infrastructure.[^24]

For historians, the revolution offers a case study in how a small group of determined insurgents can topple a seemingly invincible dictatorship. It also underscores the enduring impact of colonialism and imperialism on the developing world, and the unintended consequences of great power interventions.

Perhaps most importantly, the Cuban Revolution serves as a reminder that the course of history is shaped not only by abstract forces, but by the choices and actions of individuals. The idealism, courage, and ruthlessness of figures like Castro, Guevara, and Batista left an indelible mark on their country and the world.

As Cuba embarks on a new chapter in its turbulent history, it falls to a new generation of leaders and citizens to grapple with the revolution‘s complex legacy and chart a path forward. Only time will tell if they can build a future that fulfills the dreams of those who fought and died for a better Cuba.

[^1]: Pérez, Louis A. Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution. Oxford University Press, 2014.[^3]: Benjamin, Jules R. The United States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution. Princeton University Press, 2014.[^6]: Gott, Richard. Cuba: A New History. Yale University Press, 2005.
[^7]: Sweig, Julia E. Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Harvard University Press, 2004.[^10]: Ramonet, Ignacio, and Fidel Castro. Fidel Castro: My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. Simon and Schuster, 2008.[^12]: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, https://catalog.archives.gov/id/6948762
[^13]: English, T.J. Havana Nocturne: How the Mob Owned Cuba… and Then Lost It to the Revolution. HarperCollins, 2007.
[^14]: Pérez, Louis A. Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution.
[^15]: Korda, Alberto, 1957, Museo Che Guevara, Havana, http://www.fidelcastro.cu/en/image/che-and-fidel-1957
[^16]: Anderson, Jon Lee. Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life. Grove Press, 2010.
[^17]: Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. The Cuban Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy. Oxford University Press, 2011.[^19]: Thomas, Hugh. Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom. Da Capo Press, 1998.
[^20]: U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act, Communist Threat to the U.S. through the Caribbean, 87th Congress, 1st session, Aug. 30, 1960.
[^21]: United Nations, 1960, https://www.unmultimedia.org/s/photo/detail/110/0110908.html
[^22]: Domínguez, Jorge I. Cuba: Order and Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1978.
[^23]: Latell, Brian. After Fidel: The Inside Story of Castro‘s Regime and Cuba‘s Next Leader. St. Martin‘s Press, 2014.
[^24]: LeoGrande, William M., and Peter Kornbluh. Back Channel to Cuba: The Hidden History of Negotiations between Washington and Havana. UNC Press Books, 2014.